The Role of Hypotheses in Psychological Research

Table of Contents Introduction Hypothesis Psychology Body of Knowledge Conclusion Reference List Introduction Psychological research is often done by developing and testing theories. A theory on the other hand is a well established, principle which has been developed to give a reasonable explanation to some worldly phenomenon. Most theories arise out of repeated observations, testing and other scientific facts, laws and tested hypotheses. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Hypotheses in Psychological Research specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In most cases, deductive approach is used to generate specified predictions from other general theories. The process through which detailed predictions are drawn concerning the validity of a theory is the testing of hypothesis. Hypothesis A hypothesis is a specified concept about a certain concept which can be tested about the anticipation of the outcome in the study (DeCarvalho, 1991, 48). For instance, a research developed to study the relationship between study habits among students and examination anxiety could have a hypothesis that states, â€Å"The study is developed to evaluate the hypothesis that students who studied better experienced less anxiety for examinations†. The hypothesis explains what the researcher is expecting as the outcome unless it is explorative (Coon Mitterer, 2011, p. 23). Therefore the first role of hypothesis is presenting the premise on which the psychological study is based on. A well developed hypothesis in psychology will hence be able to give the researcher the direction of the experiment or investigation. The investigator will know which kind of data to collect, the methods to evaluate and measure the data, how to interpret and draw conclusions. Therefore the hypothesis in psychological expereiemns has explanatory power. They also suggest to the researcher the expected association between the v ariables under investigation (Coon Mitterer, 2011, p. 29). The hypothesis are required to be testable and aligned to the current pool of knowledge about certain concepts and factors. The hypothesis also gives the reader a prelude of an experiment and therefore good hypothesis for psychological study should be simple and concise.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A hypothesis provides the psychologist with an uncertain explanation of an observable fact therefore sparking a feeling of curiosity and therefore inspires and facilitates expansion of knowledge in that sector. A hypothesis also gives the investigator a relational statement which can be tested by scientific methods and therefore helps to determine the type of study method that will be used for investigations. As the method determines the data collected, hypothesis also guides the reporting of the findings and making conclusi ons (DeCarvalho, 1991, 48). This is because, the researcher seeks to accept or reject the hypothesis. And this is often the goal of the research. In psychological studies, hypotheses are normally drawn from the existing knowledge and theories. As such hypotheses in this field function as the working instrument of certain theories that need to be proven or need more knowledge in terms of literature or findings (DeCarvalho, 1991, 48). Psychology Psychology is described as the science of mental wellbeing and deals with both the status and the functioning. As a science, psychology is constituted by two essential principles (Hand 2004, p. 34). The first is that there has to be measurement. Hypothesis states the variables to be measured as a second role. This role is very important because in science, before any phenomenon has been subjected to measurement it cannot attain a standing and dignity as a scientific fact (Fiske et al, 2010, p. 45). The second principle is that, psychological research should inform and be informed by a number of theories and hypotheses. By having a testable hypothesis, psychological research is made valid as it can be examined (Hand 2004, p. 36). In psychology, there are two major empirical models of doing study and two types of hypotheses that can be tested. The different approaches deal with differ hypotheses. There is the causal hypothesis and the associative hypothesis. Sometimes the two can be examined together (Coon Mitterer, 2011, p. 28). Causal hypothesis helps a psychologist or a researcher to observe how manipulating some factors affects the outcomes of other variables in future. Associative hypothesis on the other hand investigates the frequency at which certain events happen concurrently (Coon Mitterer, 2011, p. 29). Causal hypothesis therefore uses random allocation experimental methods of study. Causal uses random sampling.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Hypotheses in Psychological Rese arch specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In general, psychological researches revolve around generation of hypothesis and testing them (Fiske et al, 2010, p. 45). As hypotheses are speculation and testing them helps to develop other theories with integrity. Many studies focus on the methods of hoe these hypotheses are tested and dwell less on their generation strategies. Design of hypothesis determines the methods to be used for testing. Body of Knowledge The more specific the hypothesis in a research is, the more intuitive the research will be and therefore the results will be more actionable. Normally, psychological research hypotheses are developed by a number of means. The common one is inductive reasoning and in this strategy, the researcher makes some observations which lead to him or her to develop a presumption (Fiske et al, 2010, p. 45). To conduct the study, the researcher then employs larger battery of deductive methods to cr eate a hypothesis that is falsifiable and practical. Hypotheses help the research to build on the current knowledge in that they form precursors to theories and research problem which in most cases are questions in a research. For instance asking why student experience anxiety when examinations are going on. The problem question could be framed as ‘why do student experience anxiety during examination period?’ this is a very broad statement which is not testable by research method. However it can draw literature views (Fiske et al, 2010, p. 45). To look into it, the researcher will have to conduct a literature review and use previously acquired knowledge and intuition to answer it. Intuition is not scientific. A research hypothesis pairs down the problem to form a concept that is testable and falsifiable. From the above example, the investigator could the anxiety could be because student do not prepare well for the examinations (Coon Mitterer, 2011, p. 29). A psycholo gist must create a realistic hypothesis where the experiment will be designed. The researcher will then keep on referencing to the hypothesis for thought process and development of solutions to the research problem.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conclusion Psychologists regularly suggest theories to explain how human beings behave. On a more informal approach, people judge others, their intentions, the motivations and the cause of certain actions. These subjective and anecdotal opinions are subject to tests. Hypotheses can be developed where these assumptions or perception can be tested by scientific methods in an object and systematic approach. It is pertinent to note that then hypothesis cannot be proved nor disapproved, rather the investigator accepts or rejects the hypothesis. When the hypothesis is rejected, it leads to development of another hypothesis which can also be tested. Reference List Coon, D Mitterer, J., 2011, Psychology: Modules for Active Learning with Concept Modules with Note-Taking and Practice Exams, 11th Ed., Cengage Learning, New York DeCarvalho, R.J., 1991, The Growth Hypothesis in Psychology: The Humanistic Psychology of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, EMText, San Francisco Fiske, S.T., Gilbert, D.T., Lindzey, G., 2010, Handbook of Social Psychology, Volume 2, John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex Hand, D. J. 2004, Measurement Theory and Practice: The World through Quantification, Edward Arnold, London This essay on The Role of Hypotheses in Psychological Research was written and submitted by user Adm1ralP1ett to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Moral Dilemma of Euthanasia essays

The Moral Dilemma of Euthanasia essays Every day we face countless choices that involve doing the right thing; however, the right thing to do isn't always the easiest thing to do. Each of these choices involves thousands of messages whirling inside our brain. In a split second our minds review the facts, explore our feelings, study consequences, compare the options against our beliefs and priorities, consider what others may think, and give the cue for action. Decisions happen so quickly but the consequences can last a lifetime and may affect others. That's why careful consideration is vital, but sometimes we do not have the time to consider the answers. A code of ethics/morals can help in determining right from wrong under these circumstances. They can determine the direction our lives will take as a result of such decisions, as my life was swept up in this moral/ethical dilemma. I made a choice as a young girl and the daughter of my mother, to take care of my mother when my father left, moreover because of my sense o f duty, than of my sense of moral or ethics as at this point I am not sure I had a code of ethics, but I have found out since that I had a strong code of ethics. I this choice never imagining it would be an obligation that would last for over 3 decades, a choice of insurmountable proportion, I made this choice when I was only responsible my myself, not realizing one day I would have a family. A choice which led me to the biggest moralethical decision that would ever effect my life and the life of my family. In the end I wanted to be as moral and as responsible for my decisions not only for myself, but also my children, I wanted to be a good strong moral example which would impact their lives as much as mine had been my children so if ever faced with a similar dilemma their choices would be just as morally right as mine. My dilemma in the end was whether or not to euthanize my mother. After 12 years of catholic school I was taught to believe in God...

Themis, Dike, Justitia and Lady Justice

Themis, Dike, Justitia and Lady Justice The modern image of justice is based on Greco-Roman mythology, but its not a clear one-to-one correspondence. U.S. courts argue against the placement of any version of the 10 Commandments in courtrooms because it might be a violation of the establishment of a (single) state religion, but the establishment clause is not the only problem with putting up the 10 commandments in federal buildings. There are Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish versions of the 10 Commandments, each substantially different. [See 10 Commandments.] Variability is the same problem that is faced when answering the simple question of which ancient goddess the modern version of Lady Justice represents. Theres also a question of whether or not putting up pagan-based images is a violation of the establishment clause, but thats not an issue for me to unravel. In a forum thread about Themis and Justitia, goddesses of Justice, MISSMACKENZIE asks: I mean which did they intend to portray, a Greek or Roman goddess? And BIBACULUS answers: The modern image of Justice is a conflation of various images and iconography over a period of time: the sword and the blindfold being two of the images that would have been alien to antiquity.Here is some information on the Greek and Roman goddesses and personifications of Justice.ThemisThemis was one of the Titans, the children of Uranos (Sky) and Gaia (Earth). In Homer, Themis appears three times where her role, according to Timothy Gantz in Early Greek Myth, is that of imposing some kind of order or control over gatherings.... Sometimes Themis is called the mother of the Moirai and the Horai (Dike [Justice], Eirene [Peace], and Eunomia [Lawful Government]). Themis was either first or second to deliver oracles at Delphi an office she gave over to Apollo. In this role, Themis prophesied that the son of the nymph Thetis would be greater than its father. Until the prophecy, Zeus and Poseidon had been trying to win Thetis, but afterwards, they left her to Peleus, who became the morta l father of the great Greek hero Achilles.Dike and AstraiaDike was the Greek goddess of justice. She was one of the Horai and the daughter of Themis and Zeus. Dike had a valued place in Greek literature. Passages from (www.theoi.com/Kronos/Dike.html) The Theoi Project describe her physically, holding a staff and balance:If some god had been holding level the balance of Dike (Justice).- Greek Lyric IV Bacchylides Frag 5and[Depicted on the chest of Cypselus at Olympia] A beautiful woman is punishing an ugly one, choking her with one hand and with the other striking her with a staff. It is Dike (Justice) who thus treats Adikia (Injustice).- Pausanias 5.18.2Dike is described as almost indistinguishable from Astraea (Astraia) who is depicted with a torch, wings, and Zeus thunderbolts.JustitiaIustitia or Justitia was the Roman personification of justice. She was a virgin living among humans until the wrong-doings of mortals forced her to take flight and become the constellation Virgo, acc ording to the Adkinses in Dictionary of Roman Religion.On a coin depicting Justitia from A.D. 22-23 (www.cstone.net/~jburns/gasvips.htm), she is a regal woman wearing a diadem. In another (/www.beastcoins.com/Deities/AncientDeities.htm), Justitia carries olive twig, patera, and scepter.Lady JusticeThe U.S. Supreme Court website explains some of the images of Lady Justice that adorn Washington D.C.:Lady Justice is a blend of Themis and Iustitia. The blindfold with which Justice is now associated probably started in the 16th century. In some of the Washington D.C. statues, Justice holds scales, blindfolds, and swords. In one representation she is fighting evil with her gaze, although her sword is still sheathed.Besides all the statues of Lady Justice, Themis, and Justitia in courthouses across the U.S. (and world), the much revered Statue of Liberty bears a close resemblance to the ancient goddesses of justice. Even in antiquity the personification of Justice goddesses changed to fit the times or the needs and beliefs of the writers. Is it possible to do the same with the Ten Commandments? Wouldnt it be possible to distill the essence of each commandment and arrive at an order by consensus of some ecumenical council? Or let the different versions exist side by side just as the statues of Justice do in Washington D.C.?Images of Justice

Application of ethical values to the business Essay

Application of ethical values to the business - Essay Example The second code is about professionalism that should be adopted to contribute towards public interest and to support public preferences. A person should not always work for his own benefit only; rather he should do well to others as it is rightly said "Do good have good". The third code is objectivity that is essential for business growth and to avoid controversial downfall. One must avoid self interest in business activities that would be beneficial both for him and the firm. Every person has his own point of view but one cannot impose them on others so we should avoid such situations as much as we can. The fourth code is confidentially that refers to the information obtained in business relationship is not disclosed outside the firm without proper and specified authority, so that the clients may feel secure. It is our moral duty to keep one's secret in complete guard. The fifth code is competence; all the tasks performed by the employees should be in relevance with their ability, d ue skill and care, which is the only way to get efficient work by the employees and I personally think that an employ is better adapted to the work if he has a good command on it because If you want to do justice to your work you should do it properly and it only happen if you have enough knowledge about the task. The sixth code of my business ethics is courtesy. My staff should behave with courtesy with the dealers and the customers so that we may get positive response. As far as the question of my employees is concerned that how I will enable them to establish shared ethical position, for this I must say that Once Napoleon Bonaparte had said, "There are two levers to set a man in motion, fear and self-interest."(Napoleon) My prior method to enhance the ethical position of my staff is through developing their self-interest which is the most appropriate scheme. Their interest can be build up by introducing bonus system for exceptional work and by increasing their nominal and real wages; this will certainly assure their interest towards their duty and they shall work with greater responsibility and shared ethical codes. I shall guide my staff that you should work with integrity in all professional, business and personal financial relationships. You should not provide misleading statements and should be free from frauds and errors so that the customers may feel secure and rely on us while dealing with us. You should ensure that your conflicts of intere sts are not compromised. You should do your best for objectivity in all professional and business judgments, so that our business may not suffer from any type of controversial downfalls. You should carry out your work with due skill, care, diligence and expeditions, and with proper regard to your expertise which is expected from you. You should not

Media Freedom and Regualtion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Media Freedom and Regualtion - Essay Example try in conjunction with the Department of Culture, Media and Sports to come up with a White paper in 1998 which proposed the creation of a single super-regulatory body that would consolidate the powers and functions of all existing regulatory bodies, merging in effect the operations of such bodies into it. After extensive consultations conducted by the government on these proposals, the Office of Communications Act of 2002 was passed by Parliament finally making possible the creation of that regulatory body. A year later, the Communications Act of 2003 laid down in detail the powers and functions of OFCOM. The obvious advantage that OFCOM brought to UK broadcasting is that it has made simple and clearer communications regulations as it becomes the one single repository of communications authority, in addition to the comparatively efficient savings in costs that a single operating agency result as opposed to the total sum of costs of five different regulating bodies operating at once. Any discussion of UK broadcasting will not be complete without knowledge of its historical beginnings and thus, this paper will begin by tracing the history of UK broadcasting which is really synonymous with the birth of BBC to the present age of digital media. This is necessary to explain the unique status of UK broadcasting in the world, the enviable position of BBC in UK broadcasting and the sticky issue as to why even super-regulatory body OFCOM cannot completely placed BBC under its total remit. Likewise, it will provide a backdrop to the inevitability of creating a single regulatory body and provide a contrast to regulation pre-OFCOM and after OFCOM. It will then discuss OFCOM in detail, outlining its creation, nature, powers and functions after which the paper will attempt to delve on the accomplishments that OFCOM has, so far, brought into the UK broadcasting landscape. Thereafter, the paper will also consider what it sees as lapses or shortcomings in OFCOM operations in its

Womens History :: Essays Papers

Women's History Amelia Bloomer:Amelia Bloomer was born in Cortland County, New York, in 1818. She received an education in schools of the State and became a teacher in public schools, then as a private tutor. She married in 1840 to Dexter C. Bloomer, of Seneca Falls, New York. Dexter C. Bloomer was editor of a county newspaper, and Mrs. Bloomer began to write for the paper. She was one of the editors of the Water Bucket, a temperance paper published during Washingtonian revival. Mr. Bloomer lived in Seneca Falls in 1848, but did not participate in the Women’s Rights Convention. In 1849, Bloomer began work with a monthly temperance paper called The Lily. It was devoted to women’s rights and interests, as it became a place for women advocates to express their opinions. The paper initiated a widespread change in women’s dress. The long, heavy skirts were replaced with shorter skirts and knee-high trousers or undergarments. Bloomer’s name soon became associated with to this n ew dress, and the trousers became known as Bloomers. She continued to new dress and continued advocating for women’s rights in her paper. In 1854, Mrs. Bloomer began giving numerous speeches and continued to fight for equal justice for women. Carrie S. Burnham: Carrie S. Burnham believed that she had the right to vote and attempted to vote on October 10, 1871. When she tried to vote, her ballot was rejected. She took her argument to the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania in April 1873. Burhnam thought that â€Å"It is not simply whether I shall be protected in the exercise of my inalienable right and duty of self-government, but whether a government, the mere agent of people,...can deny to any portion of its intelligent, adult citizen participation therein and still hold them amenable to its laws.† Burnham petitioned the Court of Common Pleas for the right to vote. She argued that she met the legal definition of the words â€Å"freemen† and citizen. The court disagreed, though. Justice Sharswood maintained that citizenship did not entitle one to have rights, and that although women were citizens, it did not entitle them to legally vote. Anna Ella Carroll (1815 - 1893): Anna Ella Carroll was born on August 29, 1815, near Pocomoke City, Maryland. When the Civil War started, she lived in Washington D.C., and wrote numerous letter, pamphlets, and articles in support of the Union. She published The

Physical Education Activities Essay

The high school students are full of energy at this point in time of their developmental stage a normal human beings and as such they engage in various activities. In the subject of Physical Education (P.E.) these students manifest their individual attitude towards participation in Physical Education activities. This study is interested looking closely into this situation and would like to determine the effect of the factors of attitude and teachers’ qualification towards students’ participation in Physical Education activities at Basilan National High School. Recent research has shown that degenerative diseases begin in early childhood. As Kaercher (1981) wrote, â€Å"There’s increasing evidence in youngsters of high cholesterol in the blood, high blood pressure, obesity and other conditions that are associated with heart disease, stroke and other disorders† (p. 20). Bucher (1982) stated that medical specialists blame deaths due to heart disease, cancer, and stroke largely on â€Å"changes in lifestyle characterized by factors over which doctors have little or no control† (p.13). Research suggests that regular physical activity, begun in childhood, may help prevent degenerative diseases. According to Hanson (1974), â€Å"The necessity of physical activity for a growing child is well-documented in terms of growth and fitness needs. Physical activity increases muscle tone, improves respiration and circulation, benefits digestion, aids in controlling obesity, promotes rehabilitation after illness and surgery, and stimulates proper growth and development Physical benefits alone could be sufficient reason for supporting physical education programs.† (p. 2). And Reiff (1977, p. 26) reported that high school students involved in an eight-week program of physical activity showed gains in fitness. The above-cited researches on physical education and its importance is taken into consideration in this study on the factors affecting students’ participation in physical education activities of Basilan National High School. Statement of the Problem This study attempted to determine the attitude and teachers qualification as factors affecting the students’ participation in physical education activities at Basilan National High School; Specifically, it tried to answer the following questions: 1. What is the attitude of the students towards participation in physical education at Basilan National High School in terms of: 1.1`gender 1.2 religion 1.3 ethnicity 1.4 socio-economic status 2. Do the factors of attitude and teachers qualification affect the students’ participation in physical education activities at Basilan National High School? 3. Is there a significant difference in the effect of the factors of attitude and teachers qualification in the students’ participation in physical education activities in terms of: 3.1 gender 3.2 religion 3.3 ethnicity 3.4.socio-economic status? Significance of the Study The results of this study provide additional information for the benefit of the following: School administrators – the data in this study will be subject to further study and consideration and could serve as basis for the construction of approaches and programs to enhance students’ participation the school’s physical education activities. Physical Education Teachers – they will be able to access data gathered in this study for their guide in the preparation of effective teaching methods which could motivate the students to actively participate in the physical education in school. Students – they will gain additional knowledge from the findings in this study and will serve as eye opener for them towards better participation in the physical education activities programmed by the school. Scope and Delimitation of the Study This study is concentrated in the identification of the factors which affect the students participation in physical education activities at Basilan National High School. The data to be gathered from the students in Basilan National High School are from first year to fourth year enrolled for school year 2010 2011. The physical activities are part of the prescribed activities in the physical education school curriculum. Chapter II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Under this chapter the following are presented and discussed: Related Literature, Theoretical Framework, Conceptual Framework, Research Hypothesis, and Definition of Terms. Related Literature Physical education is a type of class in which elementary, middle, and high school students are usually required to participate. It emphasizes exercise, and sometimes health and nutrition. This class, sometimes known as PE or gym class, usually takes place in a large gymnasium, but it can also take place outdoors. While there are a number of advantages to physical education, like most things, there are also a few disadvantages. Exercise is typically the main goal of physical education. Sometimes, a physical education teacher may instruct his student to perform drills or exercises. Other times, students may play games and sports. Basketball and dodge ball, for example, are two popular PE games. Larger schools may also have an indoor swimming pool that students can use during their gym class. While many of these drills, exercises, and sports can be played indoors, sometimes a PE class should be held outdoors. Football, baseball, and golf, for instance, are typically outside sports. Weather permitting, some schools may even offer skiing or snowshoeing. Online physical fitness classes may seem unusual, but with technological advances comes innovation. A few schools now allow their students to fulfill physical education requirements on their own time. This can be done by letting a student choose an activity to participate in. She can then keep track of how much exercise she has done. A teacher, coach, or parent is usually required to vouch for the student. Physical fitness in school, however, is not just about motivating students to become more active. It also helps younger students develop their psychomotor skills. Some elementary schools may also combine physical education classes with health classes, educating students about healthy choices and nutrition as well. Traditional classes where students play sports also help them learn to work as a team. (www.wisegeek.com/what-is-physical-education.htm) Clearly, physical education requirements can boost overall physical activity levels in children. The authors suggest that school-based activity be considered an important component in meeting the guidelines for physical activity in adolescents. Myers, Strikmiller, et. al. (1996). Physical and sedentary activity in school children grades 5-8; the Bogalusa Heart Study. Medicine Science in Sports and Exercise, vol. 28, pp. 852-859. Physical activity enhances a person’s life both socially and psychologically. Studies have shown that physical activity may modify anxiety and depression (Sachs 1982, p. 44). Layman (1972, p. 5) gave evidence that poor physical condition predisposes individuals to poor mental health. Hanson (1974, p. 2) stated that â€Å"physical activity contributes to the general feeling of well-being. It is an avenue for expression of anger, aggression and happiness a means for discovery of self as well as a social facilitator.† Moreover, according to Espenschade (1960), â€Å"The status of the elementary school child with his peers is dependent to a great extent on his motor skills and his behavior in game situations† (p.3). Clarke (1982, p. 10) added to these statements, suggesting that the child’s realization of personal and social effectiveness relies heavily on guidance within the physical education experience. Research shows a positive relationship between physical activity and academic achievement. In one study, begun in 1951 in an elementary sch ool in Vanves, France, the school day was divided so that four hours were devoted to academics and one to two hours to physical education, art, music, and supervised study (Bailey 1976). By 1960, not only were health, fitness, discipline, and enthusiasm superior in the experimental program, but academic performance also surpassed controlled classes. Similar experiments in Belgium and Japan produced comparable results (Carlson 1982, p. 68), illustrating the importance of physical education to a successful academic program. The importance of wise use of leisure time was supported as early as 1918 in the Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education (National Education Association). Children need recreational skills and a positive attitude toward exercise to enhance their use of leisure. Indeed, â€Å"Research indicates that motor skills learned in physical education classes may be the stimulus for increased activity during leisure time (Seefeldt 1977, p. 3). Gilliam and others demonstrated that physical education programs involving vigorous activities encourage participants to use leisure time more actively (p. 3). Thus, physical education can play a major role in promoting an active, healthy lifestyle. The importance of wise use of leisure time was supported as early as 1918 in the Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education (National Education Association). Children need recreational skills and a positive attitude toward exercise to enhance their use of leisure. Indeed, â€Å"Research indicates that motor skills learned in physical education classes may be the stimulus for increased activity during leisure time (Seefeldt 1977, p. 3). Gilliam and others demonstrated that physical education programs involving vigorous activities encourage participants to use leisure time more actively (p. 3). Thus, physical education can play a major role in promoting an active, healthy lifestyle.